Torts: Remedies

Part of a Current Project

Restatement of the Law, Third,

This project is part of ALI’s ongoing revision of the Restatement Second of Torts. Portions of the Restatement Second have been superseded by the Restatement Third of Torts: Products Liability, Apportionment of Liability, Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm, and Liability for Economic Harm.

This Restatement will cover several distinct types of issues. The first is identifying the types of damages that are recoverable, including past and future lost wages, medical expenses, disfigurement, pain and suffering, lost profits, and damage to property. The second type involves issues related to measuring damages, for example, discounting future earnings to present value, the effect of taxes, and the collateral-source rule. The third type is injunctions against threatened or continuing torts or to reverse the effects of completed torts. And the fourth type is other forms of monetary relief, such as nominal and punitive damages and restitution of unjust enrichment.

Shop individual parts

Tentative Draft No. 3
Tentative Draft No. 3
356 pages, 2024, #1R3TRETD3
Table of Contents
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance ...................................................................................................................... xiv
Foreword .................................................................................................................................................. xv
Reporters’ Memorandum ......................................................................................................................... xvi
Projected Overall Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... xviii

Chapter 1. Compensatory Damages
Topic 1. General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages
§ 11. Loss of Chance ................................................................................................................................. 1
Topic 2. Injury to the Person
§ 26. Wrongful Pregnancy ....................................................................................................................... 27
§ 27. Wrongful Birth of a Child with Disabilities ....................................................................................... 44
Chapter 2. Other Monetary Remedies
§ 38. Nominal Damages .......................................................................................................................... 68
§ 39. Liability for Punitive Damages (Exemplary Damages) ................................................................... 86
§ 40. Punitive Damages Against a Tortfeasor’s Principal (Direct and Vicarious Liability) ...................... 127
§ 41. The Amount of Punitive Damages ................................................................................................ 142
§ 42. Restitution of Unjust Enrichment (Accounting for Profits; Disgorgement) .................................... 177
Chapter 3. Injunctions and Other Forms of Specific Relief
Topic 1. Injunctions
§ 50. Undue Hardship (Balancing the Equities) ..................................................................................... 193
§ 51. Impracticality; Burden on Court .................................................................................................... 219
§ 52. Unclean Hands; In Pari Delicto Distinguished .............................................................................. 231
§ 53. Laches (Unreasonable Delay) ...................................................................................................... 256
Topic 2. Other Specific Remedies
§ 58. Recovering or Protecting Interests in Land (Ejectment, Quiet Title, and Injunctions) ................... 275
§ 59. Recovering Personal Property (Replevin and Its Analogs; Injunctions) [to come] ........................ 279
§ 60. Declaratory Judgments ................................................................................................................. 279
§ 61. Constructive Trusts, Equitable Liens, and Subrogation ................................................................ 296
§ 62. Rescission .................................................................................................................................... 306
§ 63. Reformation .................................................................................................................................. 309

Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 3 ............................................................................ 312
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership ................................................... 321
Tentative Draft No. 3 contains material from Chapter 1, Topic 1, General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages; Chapter 1, Topic 2, Injury to the Person; Chapter 2, Other Monetary Remedies; Chapter 3, Topic 1, Injunctions; and Chapter 3, Topic 2, Other Specific Remedies. The membership voted to approve this draft at the 2024 Annual Meeting subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
356 pages, 2024, #1R3TRETD3E
Table of Contents
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance ...................................................................................................................... xiv
Foreword .................................................................................................................................................. xv
Reporters’ Memorandum ......................................................................................................................... xvi
Projected Overall Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... xviii

Chapter 1. Compensatory Damages
Topic 1. General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages
§ 11. Loss of Chance ................................................................................................................................. 1
Topic 2. Injury to the Person
§ 26. Wrongful Pregnancy ....................................................................................................................... 27
§ 27. Wrongful Birth of a Child with Disabilities ....................................................................................... 44
Chapter 2. Other Monetary Remedies
§ 38. Nominal Damages .......................................................................................................................... 68
§ 39. Liability for Punitive Damages (Exemplary Damages) ................................................................... 86
§ 40. Punitive Damages Against a Tortfeasor’s Principal (Direct and Vicarious Liability) ...................... 127
§ 41. The Amount of Punitive Damages ................................................................................................ 142
§ 42. Restitution of Unjust Enrichment (Accounting for Profits; Disgorgement) .................................... 177
Chapter 3. Injunctions and Other Forms of Specific Relief
Topic 1. Injunctions
§ 50. Undue Hardship (Balancing the Equities) ..................................................................................... 193
§ 51. Impracticality; Burden on Court .................................................................................................... 219
§ 52. Unclean Hands; In Pari Delicto Distinguished .............................................................................. 231
§ 53. Laches (Unreasonable Delay) ...................................................................................................... 256
Topic 2. Other Specific Remedies
§ 58. Recovering or Protecting Interests in Land (Ejectment, Quiet Title, and Injunctions) ................... 275
§ 59. Recovering Personal Property (Replevin and Its Analogs; Injunctions) [to come] ........................ 279
§ 60. Declaratory Judgments ................................................................................................................. 279
§ 61. Constructive Trusts, Equitable Liens, and Subrogation ................................................................ 296
§ 62. Rescission .................................................................................................................................... 306
§ 63. Reformation .................................................................................................................................. 309

Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 3 ............................................................................ 312
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership ................................................... 321
Tentative Draft No. 3 contains material from Chapter 1, Topic 1, General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages; Chapter 1, Topic 2, Injury to the Person; Chapter 2, Other Monetary Remedies; Chapter 3, Topic 1, Injunctions; and Chapter 3, Topic 2, Other Specific Remedies. The membership voted to approve this draft at the 2024 Annual Meeting subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Tentative Draft No. 2
Tentative Draft No. 2
612 pages, 2023, #1R3TRETD2
Table of Contents
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance............................................................................................................ xiv
Foreword...................................................................................................................................... xv
Reporters’ Memorandum............................................................................................................. xvi
Projected Overall Table of Contents............................................................................................ xx
Chapter 1
Compensatory Damages
Topic 1
General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages
§ 5. Fact of Damage (Preponderance of the Evidence) and Amount of Damages (Reasonable Certainty)............................................................................................................................ 1
§ 9. Offsetting Benefits................................................................................................................. 22
§ 10. Compensation or Benefits from Collateral Sources............................................................. 41
§ 11. Loss of Chance..................................................................................................................... 63
§ 12. Multiple Sufficient Causes................................................................................................... 86
§ 13. Taxes................................................................................................................................... 118
§ 14. Interest................................................................................................................................ 143
§ 15. Present Value...................................................................................................................... 159
§ 16. Attorneys’ Fees................................................................................................................... 179
§ 17. Excessive and Inadequate Damages (New Trials, Remittitur, and Additur)..................... 198
Topic 2
Injury to the Person
§ 18. Lost Earnings and Earning Capacity.................................................................................. 223
§ 19. Medical Expenses............................................................................................................... 256
§ 20. Pain and Suffering, Including Emotional Harm Accompanied by Bodily Harm to the Plaintiff......................................................................................................................................... 287
§ 21. Emotional Harm Unaccompanied by Bodily Harm to the Plaintiff (Emotional Distress)............... 316
§ 22. Dignitary Harm................................................................................................................... 337
§ 23. Wrongful Death.................................................................................................................. 362
§ 24. Survival Actions................................................................................................................. 401
§ 25. Loss of Consortium............................................................................................................ 412
§ 26. Wrongful Pregnancy........................................................................................................... 426
§ 27. Wrongful Birth................................................................................................................... 440
§ 28. Defamation and Invasion of Privacy.................................................................................. 461
Chapter 3
Injunctions and Other Forms of Specific Relief
Topic 1
Permanent Injunctions
§ 43. Availability of Permanent Injunctions............................................................................... 463
§ 44. Scope of Injunctive Relief.................................................................................................. 490
§ 45. No Duplicate Relief............................................................................................................ 506
§ 46. Ripeness and Mootness...................................................................................................... 510
§ 47. Replaceability; Difficulty of Measuring Damages............................................................. 529
§ 48. Risk of Repeated Litigation (Multiplicity of Suits)............................................................ 552
§ 49. Potentially Insolvent or Immune Defendants.................................................................... 559
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 2.............................................................. 573
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership....................................... 588
Tentative Draft No. 2 contains a portion of Chapter 1, Topic 1, General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages; all of Chapter 1, Topic 2, Injury to the Person; and a portion of Chapter 3, Topic 1, Permanent Injunctions. At the 2023 Annual Meeting, the membership voted to approve Tentative Draft No. 2 in its entirety, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative, with the exception of Sections 11, 26, and 27, which were discussed but not presented for voting. The approved material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
612 pages, 2023, #1R3TRETD2E
Table of Contents
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance............................................................................................................ xiv
Foreword...................................................................................................................................... xv
Reporters’ Memorandum............................................................................................................. xvi
Projected Overall Table of Contents............................................................................................ xx
Chapter 1
Compensatory Damages
Topic 1
General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages
§ 5. Fact of Damage (Preponderance of the Evidence) and Amount of Damages (Reasonable Certainty)............................................................................................................................ 1
§ 9. Offsetting Benefits................................................................................................................. 22
§ 10. Compensation or Benefits from Collateral Sources............................................................. 41
§ 11. Loss of Chance..................................................................................................................... 63
§ 12. Multiple Sufficient Causes................................................................................................... 86
§ 13. Taxes................................................................................................................................... 118
§ 14. Interest................................................................................................................................ 143
§ 15. Present Value...................................................................................................................... 159
§ 16. Attorneys’ Fees................................................................................................................... 179
§ 17. Excessive and Inadequate Damages (New Trials, Remittitur, and Additur)..................... 198
Topic 2
Injury to the Person
§ 18. Lost Earnings and Earning Capacity.................................................................................. 223
§ 19. Medical Expenses............................................................................................................... 256
§ 20. Pain and Suffering, Including Emotional Harm Accompanied by Bodily Harm to the Plaintiff......................................................................................................................................... 287
§ 21. Emotional Harm Unaccompanied by Bodily Harm to the Plaintiff (Emotional Distress)............... 316
§ 22. Dignitary Harm................................................................................................................... 337
§ 23. Wrongful Death.................................................................................................................. 362
§ 24. Survival Actions................................................................................................................. 401
§ 25. Loss of Consortium............................................................................................................ 412
§ 26. Wrongful Pregnancy........................................................................................................... 426
§ 27. Wrongful Birth................................................................................................................... 440
§ 28. Defamation and Invasion of Privacy.................................................................................. 461
Chapter 3
Injunctions and Other Forms of Specific Relief
Topic 1
Permanent Injunctions
§ 43. Availability of Permanent Injunctions............................................................................... 463
§ 44. Scope of Injunctive Relief.................................................................................................. 490
§ 45. No Duplicate Relief............................................................................................................ 506
§ 46. Ripeness and Mootness...................................................................................................... 510
§ 47. Replaceability; Difficulty of Measuring Damages............................................................. 529
§ 48. Risk of Repeated Litigation (Multiplicity of Suits)............................................................ 552
§ 49. Potentially Insolvent or Immune Defendants.................................................................... 559
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 2.............................................................. 573
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership....................................... 588
Tentative Draft No. 2 contains a portion of Chapter 1, Topic 1, General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages; all of Chapter 1, Topic 2, Injury to the Person; and a portion of Chapter 3, Topic 1, Permanent Injunctions. At the 2023 Annual Meeting, the membership voted to approve Tentative Draft No. 2 in its entirety, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative, with the exception of Sections 11, 26, and 27, which were discussed but not presented for voting. The approved material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Tentative Draft No. 1
Tentative Draft No. 1
306 pages, 2022, #1R3TRETD1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance .............................................................................................. xiv
Foreword .......................................................................................................................... xv
Reporters’ Memorandum ................................................................................................. xvi
Preliminary Overall Table of Contents .............................................................................. xix
INTRODUCTION
THE RIGHT TO A REMEDY
§ 1. Availability of Tort Remedies ..................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 1
COMPENSATORY DAMAGES
TOPIC 1
GENERAL RULES FOR MEASURING COMPENSATORY DAMAGES
§ 2. Restoring the Rightful Position (Make-Whole Relief) ................................................ 9
§ 3. One Satisfaction (No Double Recovery) .................................................................. 15
§ 4. Descriptive Categories of Damages (Immediate, Consequential, Direct,
General, and Special Damages) ..................................................................................... 26
§ 5. Reasonable Certainty ............................................................................................... 37
§ 6. Scope of Liability (Proximate Cause) ...................................................................... 54
§ 7. Unforeseeable Amount or Extent of Harm (Thin-Skull Plaintiffs) .............................. 56
§ 8. Avoidable Consequences (Mitigation of Damages) .................................................. 62
§ 9. Offsetting Benefits ................................................................................................... 127
§ 10. Compensation or Benefits from Collateral Sources ............................................... 146
§ 11. Loss of Chance [to come] ....................................................................................... 168
§ 12. Multiple Sufficient Causes [to come] ....................................................................... 168
§ 13. Taxes ....................................................................................................................... 169
§ 14. Interest ..................................................................................................................... 193
§ 15. Present Value ........................................................................................................... 209
§ 16. Attorneys’ Fees ........................................................................................................ 229
§ 17. Excessive and Inadequate Damages (New Trials, Remittitur, and Additur) ..... 248
Appendix. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 1 ........................................................ 274
Tentative Draft No. 1 contains § 1, The Right to a Remedy, and Sections from Topic 1, General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages, of Chapter 1 on Compensatory Damages.. The membership voted to approve §§ 1-4 and 6-8 of the draft at the 2022 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. The approved material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
306 pages, 2022, #1R3TRETD1E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance .............................................................................................. xiv
Foreword .......................................................................................................................... xv
Reporters’ Memorandum ................................................................................................. xvi
Preliminary Overall Table of Contents .............................................................................. xix
INTRODUCTION
THE RIGHT TO A REMEDY
§ 1. Availability of Tort Remedies ..................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 1
COMPENSATORY DAMAGES
TOPIC 1
GENERAL RULES FOR MEASURING COMPENSATORY DAMAGES
§ 2. Restoring the Rightful Position (Make-Whole Relief) ................................................ 9
§ 3. One Satisfaction (No Double Recovery) .................................................................. 15
§ 4. Descriptive Categories of Damages (Immediate, Consequential, Direct,
General, and Special Damages) ..................................................................................... 26
§ 5. Reasonable Certainty ............................................................................................... 37
§ 6. Scope of Liability (Proximate Cause) ...................................................................... 54
§ 7. Unforeseeable Amount or Extent of Harm (Thin-Skull Plaintiffs) .............................. 56
§ 8. Avoidable Consequences (Mitigation of Damages) .................................................. 62
§ 9. Offsetting Benefits ................................................................................................... 127
§ 10. Compensation or Benefits from Collateral Sources ............................................... 146
§ 11. Loss of Chance [to come] ....................................................................................... 168
§ 12. Multiple Sufficient Causes [to come] ....................................................................... 168
§ 13. Taxes ....................................................................................................................... 169
§ 14. Interest ..................................................................................................................... 193
§ 15. Present Value ........................................................................................................... 209
§ 16. Attorneys’ Fees ........................................................................................................ 229
§ 17. Excessive and Inadequate Damages (New Trials, Remittitur, and Additur) ..... 248
Appendix. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 1 ........................................................ 274
Tentative Draft No. 1 contains § 1, The Right to a Remedy, and Sections from Topic 1, General Rules for Measuring Compensatory Damages, of Chapter 1 on Compensatory Damages.. The membership voted to approve §§ 1-4 and 6-8 of the draft at the 2022 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. The approved material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.